Ancient India

Glimpses from Ancient India

It is sad that how little we know of ancient India. Unlike other religions, Hindus do not have the tradition of religion being spread like the 'Gospel'. The modern Indians believe that religion is a private affair and hence all must strive to learn it through their individual efforts. I remember when we were young, our grandparents used to tell us various aspects of our ancient scriptures, religious beliefs and other such things. Now, off course it is a thing of past and no one has time for such things. I am however sure that the youngster of today wants to know about ancient India. I have therefore tried to collect certain details / aspects which are interesting and feel you would like to read. The details are in random order and are given in succeeding paragraphs..

Gotras In Hindu society, the term gotra means clan. It broadly refers to people who are descendants in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor. Pāṇini defines gotra for grammatical purposes as apatyam pautraprabhrti gotram (IV. 1. 162), which means "the word gotra denotes the progeny (of a sage) beginning with the son's son." When a person says "I am Kashypasa-gotra," he means that he traces his descent from the ancient sage Kashyapa by unbroken male descent. Gotras This term was first used in the book 'Atharva Veda'. It means 'a heard of cows', later it was used for clan. It was initially used by Brahmins and was later adopted by Kshatriya and Vasiyas. There were initially only seven gotras. These were Kasyap, Vasista, Bhrigu, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Atri and Agastasya. Later however others like Vishvamitra, Angrish and so on were added.

Holy Books

     Ancient India When Aryans first came to India, they called the land "ARYAVARTA", the land of the Aryans. The first king of India was Bharata, however some ancient scriptures state that Manu was the first king of Aryans.

        Rig Veda These are the oldest vedas and were composed around 2000 BC. These remained in oral form and were passed from one generation to another orally for nearly 1000 years and were put to writing around 1000 BC only.

          Type of Holy Books There are two types of religious books. One is called 'SMRITI'. It means a book which is passed down orally from one generation to another e.g. RIG VEDA and MANU SMRITI. The second type of book is called 'SHRUTI'. It means a holy book which was written down as soon the contents were revealed or dictated e.g. 'ARTHASHASTRA.'

        Vedas The Vedas (from VID or knowledge) are the most ancient surviving books of the human race. They represent the first outpourings of the human mind. They remain unique after all these centuries.There are four types of Vedas. Rig Veda is the oldest and has 10 mandalas (books), 1028 suktas (hymns or chapters) and 10,589 mantras (verses). It contains perfect knowledge which the sages wrote after life-long penance e.g. knowledge of science, matter of the universe like sun, moon, air body etc It is the Veda of knowledge of all subjects under the sun. Next comes the Yajurveda, meaning the scripture for yajnas or sacrifices. Most of its 1575 hymns are taken from the Rigveda; only 75 are original.Yajurveda gives knowledge of all the deeds and duties to be performed by men or women, students, leaders, king, agriculturist etc. The third, the Sama Veda, is the grand pioneering source of all systems of music and art. It also gives knowledge how to worship God, details of Yoga philosophy, qualities, supreme deeds and nature of the God is also given.Most of its 1875 stanzas are incorporated from the Rigveda. Only 75 verses are original.The last one, the Atharva Veda, got its name from seer Atharvan. It has 731 hymns, comprising 5,977 verses. About one-fifth are drawn from the Rigveda.One hymn of the Rigveda refers only to three Vedas. The Atharva Veda is therefore not recognised by some as a Veda. It contains magic, charms and description of thousands of herbs to cure diseases.

Rig Veda: The Book of Mantra is the oldest and has 1028 hymns. The Rig Veda accounts in detail the social, religious, political and economic background of the Rig-Vedic civilization. It was written around 2000 BC.

Sham Veda: The Book of Songs It is the next oldest. The Sham Veda is purely a liturgical collection of melodies (‘saman’). The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda and have no distinctive lessons of their own. Hence, its text is a reduced version of the Rig Veda. As Vedic Scholars put it, if the Rig Veda is the word, Sama Veda is the song or the meaning and if Rig Veda is the knowledge, Sama Veda is its realization.
Yajur Veda: The Book of Rituals These contain sacrificial formulas and instructions for priests to follow. It practically served as a guidebook for the priests. There are no less than six complete recessions of Yajur Veda - Madyandina, Kanva, Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani and Kapishthala.

Atharva Veda: The Book of Spell The last of the Vedas, this is completely different from the other three Vedas and is next in importance to Rig-Veda with regard to history and sociology. Its hymns are of a more diverse character than the Rig Veda and are also simpler in language. They also contain magic spells. In fact, many scholars do not consider it part of the Vedas at all. The Atharva Veda consists of spells and charms prevalent at its time, and portrays a clearer picture of the Vedic society.

The Upanishads The Upanishads form the core of Indian philosophy. These were composed between 800 to 400 BC. They are an amazing collection of writings from original oral transmissions, which have been aptly described by Shri Aurobindo as "the supreme work of the Indian mind". It is here that we find all the fundamental teachings that are central to Hinduism — the concepts of 'karma' (action), 'samsara' (reincarnation), 'moksha' (nirvana), the 'atman' (soul), and the 'Brahman' (Absolute Almighty). They also set forth the prime Vedic doctrines of self-realization, yoga and meditation. Although there are more than 200 Upanishads, only thirteen have been identified out as presenting the core teachings. They are the Chandogya, Kena, Aitareya, **********, Katha, Mundaka, Taittriyaka, Brihadaranyaka, Svetasvatara, Isa, Prasna, Mandukya and the Maitri Upanishads. The authors of the Upanishads were many, but they were not solely from the priestly caste. They were poets prone to flashes of spiritual wisdom, and their aim was to guide a few chosen pupils to the point of liberation, which they themselves had attained. According to some scholars, the main figure in the Upanishads is Yajnavalkya, the great sage who propounded the doctrine of 'neti-neti', the view that "truth can be found only through the negation of all thoughts about it". Other important Upanishadic sages are Uddalaka Aruni, Shwetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada, Sanat Kumara.

SACRIFICES Sacrifice formed an important part of Aryans. details of all types of sacrifices which are to be done at home are given in"GRYHA SUTRAS." The main purpose was to provide gratification to GOD so that HE in turn helps them. Out of all the Gods Aryans worshiped, VARUN and RUDRA were considered of unpredictable nature, all the rest were considered good natured.

Subjects taught in Ancient India

Important Subjects studied in the Gurukul were:-

Vedas. RIG VED, SHAM VED, YAJUR VED, AND OTHER VED.
Vedangas (Branchas of Vedas).

Kalpa - Performance of Sacrifices.

Siksha - Correct pronounation.

Chandas- paragraphs from poetry and prose.

Nikuta - Interpretation of obscure words in Vedas.

Vyakaran - Grammer.

Jyotish - Astrology.

Marriages As per vedas there are eight types of marriages. These are given in succeeding paras.

Brahma Marriage

Once a boy completed his Brahmacharya (studenthood), his parents approached the parents of a girl belonging to a good family and ask them to give their daughter in marriage to their son. A marriage arranged in this manner is Brahma. In this the girl's family does not give any dowry in any form to the boy's family. There is no "commercial transaction" and the goal of a brahma marriage is the dharmic advancement of two families. Of the eight forms of marriage the dharma sastras regard this as the highest. The Brahma marriage sanctifies 21 generation i.e. a son born of such an union was said to rescue from hell, twenty-one generations of his ancestors on paternal and maternal side. This type of marriage is still prevalent amongst the Brahmins of Kumaon.

Daiva Marriage

After waiting a reasonable period for a young man to turn up and ask for their daughter's hand. The parents of the girl, marry their daughter to a priest during a sacrifice is called daiva. This type of marriage is considered inferior to brahma. In the sastras womanhood is elevated in that it is the groom's family that has to seeking bride for their son. The Daiva sanctifies 14 generations i.e. a son born of a daivya marriage is said to rescue from hell fourteen generations of his ancestors on both his paternal & maternal side.

Arsha Marriage

The third form, "arsha" suggests that it is concerned with the rishis, sages. In arsha the bride is given in exchange for two cows received from the groom. If the term is taken to mean "giving away a girl in marriage to a rishi", we must take it that the girl is married off to an old sage because the parents could not celebrate her marriage according to the brahma rite at the right time. The fact that cows are taken in exchange for the bride shows that the groom does not possess any remarkable qualities. According to the sastras, in marriages of noble kind there is no place for money or anything smacking of a business transaction. Compared to the previous two forms of marriage, a son born to such a marriage rescues a mere six generations of his ancestors from hell.

Prajapatya Marriage

In prajapatya there is no trading and kanyadana is a part of it as in the brahma ceremony. The brahma type is a better type of marriage than prajapatya since, in that type of marriage the groom's parents go seeking a bride who is to be the Grahalaksmi of their household. Six generations is all that are rescued from a son born of a prajapatya marriage as well.

Gandharva Marriage

Bridegroom and bride marry secretly, without the knowledge of their parents. This was considered inferior, because it was the result of lustful impulses. Sakuntala and Dusyanta got married in this way.The gandharva type is the "love marriage" which again has very enthusiastic support these days.

Asura Marriage

In the asura type the groom is in no way a match for the girl but the bridegroom voluntarily gave lot of wealth to the bride's relatives as ‘bride money’. This was not in accordance with the injunctions of the scriptures because it was like buying the bride, which was prohibited in the scriptures.

Rakshasa Marriage

In the raksasa form the groom battles with the girl's family, overcomes them takes their daughter away and then persuades her to marry. This was considered inferior. It was in this manner that Paramatman married Rukmini.

Paishacha Marriage

The eighth and last is paisaca. In paisaca the girl's wish do not count, nor is any money or material given to her parents. Men would marry a woman, whom he had seduced while she was asleep, intoxicated or insane or is taken against her wish and her family antagonized. This was prohibited later.

Types of KINGS

As per Vedas there are five types of Kings. These are :

Raja - An ordinary King

Maharaja - A great King

Rajadhiraj - King of Kings

Maharajadhiraj - Great king of kings.

Chakravartiraja - Universal Emperor

Hindu Time line and ancient Astronomy

As per Rig Veda Kaliyug started in 3120 BC with the start of the Mahabharata war.

As per hindu mythology, the cosmos was shaped like a flat dish, the centre of which was Meru Parvat. Around Meru Parvet , the sun, the earth and moon rotated. There were four independent continents around this peak , one of them was Jambu Dweep (Jambu = Rose and Dweep = Island) where humans stayed. The southern part of this land which was beyond the Himalayas was called Aryavarte & Bhatatkhande or the land of the Aryans and sons of Bharat.
Manu had two children, Ila the daughter and Iksavaku the son. The Chandravanshi and Suryavanshi trace their lineage to these two.

The Indian Calendar.

The Indian calendar is of 29.5 days. the month sis divided into two halves called Paksha of 15 Thithees (Lunar days) each. The first half beginning with full moon and was called Purnimavasya and the second half beginning with new moon was called Amavashya or Bahaulvashya. The fortnight beginning with the new moon was called Shuklpaksha and the dark half is called Krishnapaksha. The calandar normally consists of 12 lunar months. This makes only 354 days, thus to cater for the difference with a solar year, a thirteenth month was added to the calendar after each 30 lunar months. This leap month was called Dvitiya Asadha or DvitiyaSravanna. It was added after asadha or sravanna month. Thus each second or third year had thirteen months.

Indian Months These are Chaitra (March - April), Vaishakh (April - May), Jyaistha (May - June), Ashadh (June - July), Sharavan (July - August), Bhadrapada or Parusthapada (August - September), Ashivan or Asvayuja (September - October), Kartikka (October - November), Margasirsha or Agrahayana (November - December), Pausa or Taisa (December - January), Magha (January-February), and Phalgun (February - March). However during Vedic times the months were called Madhu, Madhava, Shukra, Suchi, Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isa, Urja, Sahas, Tapas and Tapashya.

Indian Seasons A group of two months was called Ritu. The six seasons were Vasantha ( Spring, March - May), Grishma (Summers, May - July), Varsha (Rains, July - September), Sarad (Autumn, September - November), Hemantha (Winters, November - January),and Sishir (Cool season, january - March.)

Indian Dates Indian dates are normally given in the order of month, paksha and tithi and the abbreviation sudi or badi is used for the bright or dark halves of the month e.g. Chaitra sudi7 means , seventh day from the new moon of the month of Chaitra .
The various Era's followed by Indians are :-
- Vikramaditya Era - this started in 58BC. It was started by Emperor Vikramaditya to celebrate his victory over the Sakas and driving them out of Ujjain.
- Sakas Era - This was started by a Saka King on his return to Ujjain in 78AD.
- Gupta Era - started by Emperor Chandra Gupta in 320 AD.
- Harsh era - Started by Raja Harshavardhana of Kannauj in 606 AD.
- Kalachuri Era - Started in 248 AD by a small dynasty of Central India called Traikutaka.
- Lakshmana Era - Started in Bengal in 1119 AD.
- Lichivi and Nevar Era of Nepal started in 110 Ad and 878 AD respectively.
- Kollam Era of Malabar Started in 825 AD.
- Buddha Era started in 544 BC.
- Mahavir Era started in 528 BC.
- Off all the above, the Saka and Vikrama are the most widely used eras.

Cosmology and Cosmic Time According to scriptures cosmos passes through cycles of time within cycles of time for all eternity over an enormous period of time called Mahakalpa. During the cosmos evolves and declines and again evolves only to decline once again. This cycle is divided into four periods Ashankyeya .

- The basic cycle is called Kalpa i.e ' Day of Brahma' which is equal to 4320 million earthly years. His night is equal to the day, 360 such day and night of Brahma is equal to "One year of Brahma". The life of each Brahma is 100 such years, thus as per the Hindu's the life of the universe is 311,040,000 million years. After this another great Brahma takes birth.
- In each cosmic day or Kalpa the Brahma creates the Universe and gathers it in his lap at night.
- Each Kalpa has 14 Manvantras or secondary cycles of 306,720,000 earth years.
- In each of this secondary cycles one new Manu appears.
- We are now in the 7th Manavantra of the Kalpa. The present Manu is called Vaivasvata.
- Each Manvantra contains 71 Mahayugs (1000 Mahayugs make one Kalpa.)
- Each Mahayug has four yugs called Karta, Treta, Dwapar and Kalyug. The duration of each of these is 4800, 3600, 2400 and 1200 years of GOD (each year of God = 360 human years.)
- We are in the Kalyug which started in 3120 BC i.e when the Mahabharat war started. the Kalyug will finish in 428898 AD (A very long way off, so do not worry about the Mayan Calender about the earth Coming to an end in 2012 AD)

The Planets and Stars As per Rig Veda, the heaven was divided into 27 Nakshatras based on the position of moon. The full cycle of moon was divided into 27 1/2 days and later this was corrected by adding another nakshatra. The 28 Nakshatras were Ashwini, Bharani, Krattka, Rohini, Mragasiras, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pusya, Asleesa, Magha, Purva-Phalguni, Uttara-Phalguni, Hastha, Chitra, Swati, Vishaka, Annuradha, Jyestha, Maula, Purvasadha, Uttarasadha, abhijeet, Sharvana, Dhanishta or Sravistha, satabishaj, Purva-bhadrapadda and Uttara- Bhadrapadda.
The seven planets which could be seen by naked eyes were named Surya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), Budha (Mercury),Shukra (Venus), Mangal (Mars), Brahspati (Jupitar), and Shani (Saturn). later two more planets which though could not be seen by the naked eyes . These were Rahu and Ketu. So way back , before the invention of the telescope, our astronom,ers had said that there were nine planets.

Weights, Measures and Distances

The various measurements given in the Manu Smriti and still in use in some of the remote villages and areas of India are:-

- Goldsmith weights - 5 ratti = 1 massa,16 massa = 1 tola, 4 tola = 1 pala, 10 palas = 1 dharna.

- Length
  - 8 Yava (barley corn) = 1 angul (one fingers breadth = 3.4 inch).
  - 12 Anguls = 1 vitasti (span of fingers = 9 inches.)
  - 2 Vitasti = 1 Hasta(hand) 18 inches.
  - 4 Hastha = 1 danda or dhanu 6 feet.
  - 2000 dandas = 1 kosh or goruta 2 1/2 miles.
  - 4 kosh = 1 yojana 9 miles.
- Time
  - 18 Nimesas (wink) = 1 Kastha (3 1/2 secs.)
  - 30 Kastha = 1 Kala (1 3/5 minutes).
  - 15 kalas = 1 Nadika or Nalika (24 Minutes.)
  - 30 Kalas or 2 Nadikas - 1 Muhurata or Kasna (48 Minutes.)
  - 30 Muhuratas = 1 aho-ratri (1 day and night = 24 hours.)